Eastern Roman Empire

Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire (other spellings: Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine) Roman Empire was the eastern region which is mainly Greek-speaking  on the Ancient and Middle Ages. Residents and neighbors of this country dubbed the Byzantine Empire the Roman Empire or Romania (Greek: Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía). Empire is centered in Constantinople, and ruled by emperors who is the replacement for the ancient Roman emperors after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. There is no consensus regarding the exact date of commencement of the Byzantine period. Some people call the reign of Diocletian (284-305) due to government reforms he introduced, dividing the kingdom into a pars Orientis and pars Occidentis. The other party called the reign of Theodosius I (379-395), or after his death in 395, when the empire was split into East and West. There is also a mention in 476, when the Romans invaded for the third time in a century which marks the fall of the Western (Latin), and resulted in the emperor in the East (Greece) to get a single power. However, an important point in Byzantine history was when Constantine the Great moved the capital from Nicomedia (in Anatolia) to Byzantium (which would be Constantinople) in the year 330.This country has stood for over thousands of years. During its existence, the Byzantine economic strength, cultural, and military ties in Europe, although it continued to decline, especially during the Roman-Persian Wars and Byzantine-Arab. This imperial dynasty restored in Macedonia, rose as much power in the Eastern Mediterranean at the end of the 10th century, and is able menyaingiKekhalifahan Fatimids. After the year 1071, most of Asia Minor by the Seljuk Turks captured. Restoration Komnenos managed to reinforce the dominance in the 12th century, but after the death of Andronikos I Komnenos and the end of the Komnenos dynasty at the end of the 12th century, imperial setback. Byzantines increasingly shaken during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, when the empire was forcibly disbanded and split into the kingdoms of Greek and Latin are mutually hostile. Empire's success was founded back in 1261, under the leadership of Palaiologos emperors, but the civil war in the 14th century continued to weaken the imperial power. The remaining territory annexed by the Ottoman Empire in the Byzantine-Ottoman War. Finally, successfully captured by the Ottoman Constantinople on May 29, 1453, marked the end of the Eastern Roman Empire.
This empire began to be called "Byzantine" in Western Europe in the year 1557, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work entitled Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ. The term "Byzantine" comes from "Byzantium", the name of the city of Constantinople before it became the capital of Constantine the Great. Since then, the old name is rarely used, except in the context of history and poetry. Furthermore, the Byzantine du Louvre (Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ) in 1648 and the work of Du Cange Byzantina Historia in 1680 further popularized the term Byzantine among French authors, such as Montesquieu. [3] The term was then disappears until the 19th century when peopleWesterners re-use previously, the Greek term was used for this empire.NomenclatureThis country is called by its inhabitants by the name of the Roman Empire, Empire Romans (Latin: Imperium Romanum, Imperium Romanorum, Greece: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileia ton Rhōmaíōn, Αρχη τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Arche Rhōmaíōn tons), Romania (Latin, Romanian, Greek : Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía), Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romana, Greece: Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Politeίa Rhōmaíōn tons), Graikía (Greek: Γραικία), and also Rhōmaís (Ῥωμαΐς).Although the Eastern Roman Empire is characterized multiethnic in its history, as well as maintaining the tradition of the Roman-Hellenistic, [10] the country is known by the lands west and north of its time under the name Empire Greeks because of the strong Greek influence. The use of the term Empire Greeks (Latin: Imperium Graecorum) in the West is a symbol of rejection of the claim as the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine claims to Roman inheritance was opposed in the West at the time of Empress Irene of Athens, since the appointment of the Great Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor in 800 by Pope Leo III, who viewed the Roman throne is empty (no ruler of men). The Pope and the rulers of the West prefers the term Imperator Imperator Romaniæ than Romanorum, titles are used only to Charlemagne the Great, and successor-successor.Meanwhile, the Persian civilization, Islamic, and Slavic, Roman identity of this country are recognized. In the Islamic world, the Eastern Roman Empire known as روم (Rum "Rome").In-atlas atlas of modern history, the empire is usually dubbed the Eastern Roman Empire in the period between 395 to 610. On the maps that depict the Empire after the year 610, the Byzantine Empire the term is usually used, because in the year 620, kaisarHeraklius replace official language from Latin to the Greek empire.Identity
"Byzantium may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire,which then immediately made ​​up of Eastern empire that has been in-Hellenization and end the history of thousands annually, in 1453, as a Greek Orthodox state: An empire that became the state, almost with a sense of modern the word ". a
In the centuries after the Arab occupation and the Lombards in the 7th century, multi-ethnicnature (though not the multi-nation) still exist although parts of it, the Balkans and Asia Minor, has a large Greek population. Large community of ethnic minorities and other religions (eg the Armenians) living near the border. People consider themselves RomanEast was a Ρωμαίοι (Rhomaioi-Roman) which has become a synonym for a Έλλην(Hellene - Greek), and vigorously develop self-awareness as a nation, as a residentΡωμανία (Romania, which is a call for the State and the Eastern Roman his world). This clearly appears in the literature of the period, especially in the epic as Digenes Akrites.
Consolidation in the Eastern Roman state official the 15th century are not directlydestroying the Eastern Roman society. During the Turkish occupation, the Greekscontinued to call themselves as Ρωμαίοι (the Romans) and Έλληνες (the Greeks), acharacteristic that persists until the beginning of the 21st century and still exists in modernGreece today, although "the Roman "has become the name of" the people "rather than asynonym for nation like the old days.
HistoryThe early history of the Roman EmpireThe Roman army when it has managed to master the vast area that encompasses the entire Mediterranean region and much of Eastern Europe. These areas consist of various cultural groups, both of which are still primitive and which has advanced civilization. In general, the provinces in the eastern Mediterranean region more prosperous and developed because it has been experiencing rapid development in the Empire of Macedonia and has undergone a process hellenisasi. Meanwhile, the Western provinces in mostly rural areas of the left. The difference between the two regions was long-lasting and became important in subsequent years.Separation of the Roman EmpireIn the year 293, Diocletian created a new administrative system (tetrarki), as an institution intended to streamline the control of a vast Roman Empire. He split the Empire into two parts, with two emperors ruling from Italy and Greece, each has a vice-emperor. After the reign of Diocletian and Maximian ended, tetrarki collapse, danKonstantinus I replaced it with the principle of hereditary replacement.Constantine moved the imperial center, and bring important changes to the constitution of civil and religious. In 330, he founded Constantinople as a second Rome at Byzantium.The city's strategic position in the trade between East and West. The emperor introduced the coin (the gold solidus) a high value and stable, as well and change the structure of the armed forces. Under Constantine, the imperial military forces recovered. The period of stability and prosperity can be enjoyed.Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state, but is supported by the empire, especially the emperor supported by an abundance of rights.The emperor introduced the principle that the emperor does not have to settle questions of doctrine, but need to call ecclesiastical councils for the purpose itu.Synod Arles gathered by Constantine, and the First Council of Nicaea showcased his claim to be the head of the church.Conditions of the empire in 395 may be said of the work of Constantine. Dynastic principle is applied strictly so that the emperor who died at that time, Theodosius I, could bequeath the empire to his sons: Arcadius and Honorius in the West in the East. Theodosius was the last emperor who controlled the whole of the West and East.Eastern Empire avoid the difficulties faced by the West in the third and fourth centuries, because the East has a more established urban culture and financial resources are more robust, so as to stop an attacker with a tribute and hire soldiers bayaran.Theodosius II reinforce the wall Constantinople, making the city safe from the attacks; wall can not be penetrated until the year 1204. To repel the Huns under the leadership of Attila, Theodosius gave them subsidies (purportedly 300 kg (700 lb) of gold). Moreover, he favored merchants living in Constantinople WHO traded with the Huns and other foreign groups.His successor, Marcianus, refused to continue paying this tribute. Luckily, Attila has turned his attention to the Western Roman Empire. After his death in 453, Attila the country collapsed and Constantinople opened a profitable relationship with the remaining Huns.They eventually fight as mercenaries in the Byzantine army.After the fall of Attila, peace can be enjoyed in the East, while the Western Roman collapse (collapse recorded in the year 476, when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer dropped the emperor Romulus Augustulus).To recapture Italy, the emperor Zeno could only negotiate with the Ostrogoths which had settled in Moesia. He sent the king OstrogothTheodoric to Italy as a master militum per Italiam ("head of the command to Italy"). After successfully dropping Odoacer in 493, Theodoric the Italian master.In 491, Anastasius I becomes emperor. He is an energetic reformer and an able administrator. Anastasius coin Constantine I tune the system by adjusting the weight of bronze follis, the coin which is widely used in everyday life. He also changed the taxation system, as well as abolishing tax chrysargyron unwelcome. When Anastasius died in 518, the amount of cash the state was recorded at 320,000 lbs (145,150 kg) of gold.Reconquest of the Western RomanMosaics of Justinian I in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna.Justinian I, who ascended the throne in 527, launched the reconquest of the West. In the year 532, Illyria farmer's son signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia. Despite having to pay a large annual tribute, the Byzantine east front to be safe. In the same year, Justinian survived the Nika riots in Constantinople, which ended with the death of thirty thousand rioters. This victory strengthens the position of Justinian. Pope Agapetus I was sent to Constantinople by the king of the Ostrogoths Theodahad, but failed to reach a peace treaty with Justinian. However, he managed to make monophysitism reprehensible.Roman reconquest of the West began in the year 533. Justinian sent his general Belisarius and 15,000 troops to retake the province of the tribe of Vandal Africa. Vandal kingdom successfully subdued. Meanwhile, in Italy the Ostrogoths, the king Athalaric on October 2 534. His mother, Amalasuntha, imprisoned and killed by Theodahad Martana island. Justinian saw it as an opportunity to intervene. In the year 535, the Byzantine army sent keSisilia. Victory managed to grasp, but the Ostrogoths strengthen their resistance.Totally new victory achieved in the year 540, when Belisarius captured Ravenna.Unfortunately, managed to put back together in the Ostrogoths under Totila and captured Rome on December 17, 546. Belisarius drawn by Justinian in early 549. Eunuch Narses replace it by the end of the year 551 by bringing the army number 35,000. Totila was defeated and killed in the Battle of Busta Gallorum. His successor, Teia, conquered in the Battle of Mons Lactarius (October 552). Furthermore, the Goth tribes still melawan.Suku Franka and Alamanni had launched their invasion. Even so, the war for control of the Italian peninsula has ended with the victory of the East.In the year 551, Visigothic nobility in Hispania, Athanagild, pleading for help Justinian in a revolt against the king. The emperor sent troops under Liberius. Byzantine Empire managed to master a piece of territory on the coast until the reign of Heraclius Spania.
Meanwhile, in the east, Roman-Persian Wars raged until the year 561, when Justinian and Khosrau approve the peace for 50 years. In mid-550, Justinian had achieved victory in all wars, with the exception of the Balkans, when the empire constantly attacked by the Slavs.In the year 559, the empire was threatened by Kutrigur and Sklavinoi. Justinian called Belisarius, and once the danger has gone, the emperor took power himself. The news that Justinian strengthen the fleet Donaunya make Kutrigur anxious, so they agree with the treaty that gives them subsidies and a safe path on the river.Justinian is also famous for its achievements in the field of law. In the year 529, a commission of ten men, headed by Iohannis Orientalist revise the law of ancient Rome.The whole "Justinian legislation" currently known as the Corpus Juris Civilis.During the 6th century, Greco-Roman cultural influence is still strong in the East.Philosophy and Christian culture is becoming increasingly important and begin to dominate the old culture. Hymns of Romanus Melodus Divine Liturgy marking the development. An architecture-architects and builders are working hard to complete the new church of Hagia Sophia which replaces the old church destroyed by the Nika riots.During the sixth and seventh centuries, the empire was rocked by bubonic plague, which destroyed many lives, and the resulting economic slowdown and weakening the empire.After Justinian died in 565, his successor, Justin II, refused to pay tribute to Persia.Meanwhile, Lombard tribes invaded Italy. Substitute Justin, Tiberius II, giving subsidies to ethnic Avars, while launching an attack on Persia. Subsidies fail to calm ethnic Avars.They seize the fortress of Sirmium in 582, while the Slavs began to cross the river Danube.Maurice, who succeeded Tiberius, intervened in the civil war the Persians, and put Khosrau II returned to the throne and married his daughter to him. Treaty Maurice with his new in-laws bring new status quo in the east, and reduce the cost of defense during this peace (millions solidi were rescued thanks to the remission of tribute to Persia). After his victory on the Eastern Front, Maurice can divert his attention to the Balkans, and in the year 602, he drove the Avars and Slavic tribes.Shrinking of the borderHeraclius DynastyAfter Maurice was murdered by Phocas, Khosrau trying to conquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia. Phocas, an unpopular leader who is described as a "tyrant" in the Byzantine sources, was the target of conspiracies senate. He was dropped in the year 610 by Heraclius. After Heraclius came to power, the Persian army pressed on until well into Asia Minor. They occupied Damascus and Jerusalem, and move the Cross to Ctesiphon fact. Heraclius launched a counterattack with the characteristics of a holy war.Byzantine army at war with the image of Christ as a banner acheiropoietos military.Persian army had been destroyed in the battle at Nineveh in 627. In 629, Heraclius returns to Jerusalem Behold the Cross in a ceremony full of majesty. This war weakened the Byzantine and Persian Sassanians, as well as making them vulnerable to attack by the Arab Muslim soldiers who are on the rise at that time. Arab armies succeeded in destroying the Eastern Roman army in the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, and Ctesiphon fell in 634.
Eastern Roman Empire in 650.Arab armies, who had conquered Syria and the Levant, Anatolia constantly attacked, and between the years 674 to 678mengepung Constantinople. Arab fleet had expelled with Greek fire, and a truce for thirty years between the empire was approved by the Umayyad Caliphate. The attack on Anatolia continue, and accelerate the demise of classical urban culture. Residents-many of which fortify the population back the territories which are smaller in the old city walls, or move to the nearest fortresses. Large Constantinople itself also shrank, from 500,000 residents to only 40000-70000 alone, which caused loss of wheat Constantinople in the year 618 when Egypt was captured by the Persians (the province can be taken back 629 years, but ultimately ruled by the Arabs in 642 AD).Withdrawal of troops in the Balkans to fight against the Persians and Arabs in the east has opened the door for expansion of the Slavs region. Consequently, as in Anatolia, many cities shrank to small settlements terbenteng. [48] In 670's, the nation urged Bulgaria to the south of the Danube by the Khazars. Byzantine troops sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated in the year 680. Constantine IV signed a treaty with Bulgaria Asparukh khan, and the new Bulgarian state to obtain sovereignty over some of the Slavic tribes that were previously recognized the authority of Byzantium. [49] In 687-688, the emperor Justinian II led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians are quite successful.Last emperor Heraclius, Justinian II, tried to destroy the power of the urban aristocracy through taxation and the appointment of "outsiders" in administrative positions. He was dropped in the year 695, and shelter to the Khazars, and Bulgaria. In the year 705, Justinian II soldiers returned to Constantinople with Bulgaria khan, Tervel. He took back the throne, and established the regime of terror for his enemies. Justinian II was dropped back in the year 711, so that ended the dynasty of Heraclius.Isauria Dynasty until the time when Basil I took the throneEastern Roman Empire when Leo III took the throne in 717. Striped region is an area that was attacked by the Arabs.Leo III managed to repel the attack Muslims in 718, and reached the victory with the help of the Bulgarian khans, Tervel, who managed to kill 32,000 Arab troops to the army. His successor, Constantine V, achieving victories in northern Syria, and weaken the power of Bulgaria.In 826, Arabs captured Crete, and invade Sicily, but on September 3, 863, general Petronas menggapaikemenangan great success in the battle against Omar al-Aqta, emir Melitene. Under the leadership of the emperor Bulgaria Krum, Bulgaria threat reappears, but in the year 814, the son of Krum, Omortag, make peace with the Byzantine Empire.Iconoclasm Bizantiumpada the 9th century.Eighth and ninth centuries steeped in controversy and religious divisions due to iconoclasm. The icons are forbidden by Leo III and Constantine V, which resulted in the rebellion launched by ikonodul (supporters of icons) throughout the empire. The efforts of Empress Irene, the Second Nicene Council gathered in 787, and affirmed that icons could be respected but not worshiped. In the year 813, Leo V reassign policy iconoclasm, but the Empress Theodora restored the worship of icons with the help of the Patriarch Methodios in the year 843. [53] iconoclasm widen the gulf of division between East and West, which worsened during the schism Photios, when Pope Nicholas I opposeappointment of Photios as patriarch.Dynasty and the rise of MacedoniaEastern Roman Empire in 867.
In the year 867, the East has to stabilize its position in the east and west. Thanks to the efficiency of the military structure, the emperor was able to plan the reconquest of the war in the east.The process of reconquest began with no permanent results. Crete conquered for a while (843), but subsequently the Byzantine army suffered defeat on the Bosporus, while the emperor was unable to prevent the Muslim conquest of Sicily (827-902). By using Tunisia as a springboard, the Muslims conquered Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859, Syracuse in 878, Catania in 900, and the last Byzantine stronghold, Taormina, in 902.Military success in the tenth century followed by a cultural revival, called the Renaissance of Macedonia.Shortage immediately balanced by the success of the expedition terhadapDamietta in Egypt (856), defeat of Emir Melitene (863), ensuring the imperial power in Dalmatia (867), and attacks Basil I against the Euphrates (870s). Basil I be able to handle the situation in southern Italy well, so that the province will remain in the hands of the Byzantines over the next 200 years.In 904, disaster struck the empire when the two cities, Thessaloniki, plundered by Arab fleet led by the traitor Byzantine Leo of Tripoli. Byzantine army retaliated by destroying the Arab fleet in 908, and looted the city of Laodicea in Syria two years later. Although the retaliation has been done, Byzantium was unable to shake the Muslims, who have destroyed the imperial army in Crete in 911.The situation on the border with the Arabs remain liquid. Varangia, who attacked Constantinople for the first time in the year 860, a new challenge. In the year 941, they appeared on the Bosporus coast of Asia. This time they successfully destroyed, indicating the strengthening of Byzantine military power after the year 907, when only diplomacy that is able to repel the invaders.Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas (reigned 963-969) and John I Tzimiskes (969-976) expanded the empire to Syria, beat-emir emir in northwestern Iraq, as well as re-conquered Crete and Cyprus. In John's reign, the imperial army had threatened Jerusalem. EmiratAleppo and its neighbors to become vassal empire. Having launched many military campaigns, the last Arab threat to Byzantium Basil II conquered as quickly attracted 40,000 soldiers to liberate Syria Roman riding. With a surplus of natural resources, Basil II planned the expedition to Sicily to take it from the Arabs. After his death in 1025, the expedition set off in the year 1040s, and succeeded in reaching the initial success, but success was further inhibited.
he battle against the Empire BulgariaEmperor Basil II the Bulgar slayer (976-1025).Long struggle with the Holy See continues, spurred by the question of religious superiority of the newly Christianized Bulgaria. As a result, Tsar Simeon Imelancarkan invasion in 894, but he is stopped by the Byzantine diplomacy, which solicits the help of the Hungarians. East Rome finally defeated in the Battle Bulgarophygon (896) and ordered to pay tribute to the nation of Bulgaria. Subsequently (912), Simeon succeeded in forcing the Byzantine throne bestowed basileus (emperor) of Bulgaria and the Emperor Constantine VII marry one of Simeon's daughter. When the revolt in Constantinople hamper this effort, Trakia Simeon attacked and conquered Adrianople.Imperial expedition under the leadership of Leo Phocas and Romanos Lekapenos suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Acheloos (917), and the following year entered Bulgaria and northern Greece as far as robbing Corinth. Successfully recaptured Adrianople in 923, but in the year 924 Bulgarian soldiers besieged Constantinople. The situation in the Balkans improved after Simeon's death in 927. In the year 968, Bulgaria was invaded by Rus' under pimpinanSviatoslav I of Kiev. Three years later, Emperor John I Tzimiskes successfully defeated the Rus' and enter Bulgarian territory east into the empire.Bulgaria opposition raged on Cometopuli dynasty. The new emperor Basil II (reigned 976-1025) attempt to subjugate the people of Bulgaria. Basil's first expedition to fail at the Gate Trajanus. In subsequent years, the emperor was busy with an internal rebellion in Anatolia, while Bulgaria expanding their power in the Balkans. Protracted war for nearly twenty years. Byzantine victory in Skopje Spercheios and Bulgaria managed to weaken the army. In its annual military campaigns, Basil continues to reduce the number of Bulgarian fortress. Finally, in the Battle Kleidion year 1014, Bulgaria was defeated.Bulgarian soldiers were arrested, and said 99 of the 100 soldiers blinded, while the rest were given one eye to lead the compatriots back home. When Tsar Samuil saw the fate of his army, he died from shock. In 1018, the last Bulgarian fortresses had surrendered, and their country became part of Byzantium. This victory restore the Danube frontier, which is controlled from the time of the emperor Heraclius.Relations with Rus' of KievRus' of Kiev under the walls of Constantinople (860).Between the years 850 to 1100, the imperial relationship with the Rus' of Kiev. Byzantine culture and trade partner for Kiev, but the relationship between them is not always warm.The most serious conflict between the two countries was the war in Bulgaria 968-971. Rus 'attacks' against Byzantine towns on the coast of the Black Sea and Constantinople are also recorded in history. Although these attacks can be driven, the attack ended a profitable trade dengantraktat Rus'.Rus'-Byzantine relations improved after marriage porphyrogenita Anna with Vladimir the Great. Thanks to the Christianization of all, relations between the two countries the more sweet. Pastors, architects, and artists are invited to help those working Byzantine cathedrals and churches in Rus', so the influence of Byzantine culture more widely. Some soldiers Rus' became mercenaries in the Byzantine army, with the most famous is the Keeper Varangia.PeakByzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in the west. Many successes have been achieved, from the conquest of Bulgaria, Georgia and Armenia annexation of territory, until the destruction of the Egyptian attacker outside Antioch. The victories are still not enough; Basil considering to expel the Arab occupation of Sicily. He plans to conquer the island again, but first demanded the death of his life in 1025.The crisis and disintegrationByzantine period immediately mired in difficulties, mainly caused by damage to the system and neglect the military. Nikephoros II (963-969), John Tzimiskes and Basil II changed the military divisions (τάγματα, tagmata) of the population of a defensive army into a professional army that many filled by mercenaries. However, the costs to hire a mercenary is not a little. Meanwhile, the threat of invasion continued to disappear in the tenth century, and so did the need garrisons and expensive fortifications. Basil II inherited the cash that developed in the successor-successor, but forgot to plan for his successor.None of his successors who have political or military talent, so that the imperial government fell into the hands of civil servants. Efforts to restore the Byzantine economy only resulted in inflation and the declining value of gold coins. The army then viewed as important and needs no political threat. Therefore, the original army sacked and replaced by foreign mercenaries.At the same time, the empire faces a new enemy that ambitious. Byzantine provinces in southern Italy was threatened by a tribe of Norman, who came to Italy in the early eleventh century. During the period of strife between Constantinople with Rome that ended with the East-West Schism in 1054, tribes began to invade the Italian Byzantine Norman. [58] Eastern Roman also lose their influence over the cities on the Dalmatian coast as captured Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia in 1069.In Asia Minor was the biggest disaster to happen. Seljuq Turks launched their first explorations across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and 1067. Emergency imposed on the military aristocracy in Anatolia who in 1068 secured the selection of one of their own, Romanos Diogenes, as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos launched a major military campaign against the Seljuks. At the Battle of Manzikert, Romanos not only suffered defeat at the hands of Sultan Alp Arslan, but was also arrested. Alp Arslan treated him with respect, and not wearing a hard terms on the Byzantines. Meanwhile, in Constantinople, Michael Doukas supporting the coup took place. In 1081, the Seljuks expanded their rule in Anatolia. Their territory stretched from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west. Seljuks established the capital at Nicaea, which lies just as far as 55 miles (88 km) from Constantinople.Komnenos dynasty and Crusaders
Alexios I and the First CrusadeSee also: First CrusadeEastern Roman Empire and the Sultanate of Rum before the Crusades.After the battle of Manzikert, thanks to the efforts Komnenos dynasty, the recovery is successful. The first emperor of this dynasty adalahIsaac I (1057-1059), and the second is Alexios I. In his reign, Alexios menghadai Norman attack, led by Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto. They captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and besieged Larissa diThessaly. The death of Robert Guiscard in 1085 Norman alleviate the problem temporarily. Meanwhile, Alexios defeated in the Battle Levounion Pecheneg on April 28, 1091.Portrait of Emperor Alexios I.After achieving stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the economic difficulties and the disintegration of the old imperial defense. He wants to reclaim the territory that is loose in Asia Minor and destroy the Seljuks, but do not have enough troops.At the Council of Piacenza in 1095, Alexios envoys spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of Christians in the East, and stressed that without assistance from the West, they will continue to suffer from Muslim rule. Urban saw Alexios request as an opportunity to strengthen Western Europe and strengthen the power of the papacy. On 27 November 1095, Pope Urban IImenyerukan crusade to recapture Jerusalem and the East from the hands of Muslims.Alexios had been looking forward to aid in the form of mercenaries from the West, but totally unprepared to face the great power that will pass through Byzantine territory. Alexios felt uncomfortable because four of the eight leaders of the main crusaders were Norman, one of them Bohemund. Crusaders must pass through Constantinople. Fortunately, the emperor managed to handle it. It requires its leaders vowed to crusade on their way to the Holy Land, they must submit their region or city from the Turks conquered the Byzantine.Instead, Alexios will give them guidance, food, and a military escort. Thanks to that vow, Alexios succeeded in reconquering the towns and islands important, and even most of western Asia Minor. Unfortunately, the crusaders believed their oaths are invalid when Alexios did not help them in the siege of Antioch (he actually had prepared the way to Antioch, but Stephen of Blois to convince him to resign. Stephen assured him that the expedition had failed). Bohemund, who set himself as Prince of Antioch, had fought against the Byzantines, but finally agreed to become a vassal of the Byzantine Treaty of Devol in 1108. Thanks to the treaty, Norman managed to extinguish the threat.John II, Manuel I, and the Second CrusadeManuscript menggambarkandirebutnya Jerusalem during the First Crusade.Alexios's son, John II Komnenos, succeeded him in 1118, and ruled until the year 1143.John was a pious and dedicated emperor, who wanted to repair the damage caused by the Battle of Manzikert. He is renowned for his piety and his reign is gentle and fair. John is an example of moral leadership, at a time when cruelty is the norm. Thus, he dubbed the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. In his reign, John allied with the Holy Roman Empire in the West, defeated in the Battle Beroia Pecheneg, and led the military campaign against the Turks in Asia Minor. John's military campaign to change the balance of power in the east, forcing Turkey to take a defensive position, as well as reclaim the Byzantine cities in Anatolia. [70] He also managed to repel the attack Hungary and Serbia in the year 1120's.In 1130, John allied with the German emperor Lothair III. Together they fought against the Norman king, Roger II of Sicily. At the end of his reign, John focused his activities in the East. He beat the emirate Danishmend, conquer back all Cilicia, and forcing Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, to recognize the power of Byzantium. In an effort to demonstrate the role of the East as a leader in the Christian world, John advanced to the Holy Land. Dashed hopes for treason ally soldiers cross. In 1142, John re-emphasized his claim to Antioch, but he died in 1143 due to hunting incidents. Raymond ventured to invade Cilicia, but failed and had to go to Constantinople to beg mercy of the new emperor.Eastern Roman Empire (purple) in 1180, at the end of the Komnenos period.Manuel I Komnenos, the fourth son of John, was elected as the successor to the imperial throne. He launched a military campaign against its neighbors in the west and east. In Palestine, he allied with the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and sent a large fleet to participate in the Fatimid invasion to Egypt. Manuel strengthen its position as overlord Crusader states.Hegemony of Antioch and Jerusalem ascertained by agreement with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of Jerusalem. In an effort to restore Byzantine power in the ports of Southern Italy, Manuel sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes with the coalition resulted in the failure of this military campaign. Even so, Manuel managed the armed forces invaded the Kingdom of Hungary in 1167. Hungarian army could be defeated in the Battle of Sirmium. In 1168, almost the entire eastern Adriatic coast in the hands of Manuel. Manuel then allied with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms. In masaPerang Second Crusade, the crusaders must pass through the East Roman territory to reach the holy land. Manuel let them pass, and ensure the crusaders did not cause chaos.In the east, Manuel suffered defeat in the Battle Myriokephalon year 1176. However, the defeat was soon repaired. In the following year, Manuel defeated the Turkish army.Byzantine commander John Vatatzes, which destroyed the Turkish invaders in the Battle Hyelion and Leimocheir, not only brought troops from the capital, but also managed to raise troops in transit. This is a symbol that the Byzantine army remained strong and defense programs in western Asia Minor was still successful.Manuel I Komnenos.
Twelfth-century renaissanceJohn and Manuel active military policy, and utilize existing resources for the defense of the city or siege. Aggressive fortification policies are jatung their military policy. Despite defeat in Myriokephalon, policies Alexios, John, and Manuel, succeeded in extending the empire, reaching the border of stability in Asia Minor, as well as securing the borders of the empire of Europe. From the years 1081 to 1180, the armed forces Komnenos ensure the safety of the Eastern Roman, Byzantine civilizations that have a chance to develop.Western provinces are able to reach an economic revival. During the twelfth century, the population increases and agricultural land. Archaeological evidence from Europe and Asia Minor shows a magnification of urban settlements. At this time, trade is also growing.Decline and disintegrationIn the artistic field, emerging renaissance in the field of mosaic. Regional schools of architecture began producing many new styles coming from different cultural influences.During the twelfth century, models of early humanism emerged as a renaissance of interest in classical authors.Dynasty AngeloiManuel died on September 24, 1180. He was succeeded by his son who was eleven years old, Alexios II Komnenos. Alexios II is not competent. His government is less favored because of the background Franka mother, Mary of Antioch. Finally, Andronikos I Komnenos, Alexios I's grandson, fomenting rebellion against his brother and got him in a coup. He hold rally in Constantinople in August 1182 to take advantage of its popularity in the armed forces. Andronikos Further promote the massacre of the Latin. [85] After eliminating his enemies, he declared himself emperor in September 1183. Andronikos kill and rob Alexios II Alexios's wife is aged 12 years, Agnes of France.Andronikos began his reign well. The launching of the reform government was praised by historians. According to George Ostrogorsky, Andronikos dedicated to eradicate corruption to its roots. Under his rule, the sale of office terminated. Election officials based on service, not because of favoritism. Officials were given a decent wage so that the graft can be reduced. Aristocrat, aristocrats were furious with him. Meanwhile, Andronikos behavior is also seen as less good. Punishment of death and violence often occur, so that the regime's reign of terror. [87] Andronikos trying to finish off the aristocracy. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into a massacre, while the Emperor launched a more violent action to prop up his regime.Illustration of the death of Andronikos.Although it has a military background, Andronikos could not fight against Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus, Béla III of Hungary who annexed territories Croatia, and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia who declared independence from the Roman East. Conditions had deteriorated ketikaWilliam II of Sicily attacked the Eastern Roman army of 300 ships and 80,000 soldiers in 1185. Andronikos mobilized a small fleet of 100 ships to protect the capital.These new invaders were repelled during the reign of the next emperor, Isaac Angelos.For the support of the people, Andronikos eventually dropped by Isaac Angelos. [89] Emperor who has dropped attempts to flee with his wife, but was arrested. Isaac handed it to the masses for three days. After various kinds of torture, Andronikos finally died on September 12, 1185. He is a past member of the Komnenos dynasty that controls Constantinople. Isaac Angelos Angeloi Dynasty succeeded him as emperor.In the reign of Isaac II and Alexios III Angelos also his successors, Byzantine government and defense began to crumble. Although Norman had expelled from Greece, in 1186 launched a Vlach and Bulgarian uprising that led to the founding of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Angeloi domestic policy characterized by wasting of public property and the fiscal maladministration. Byzantine government continues to weaken, and the growing power vacuum in the empire triggered the split. One proof is that when several successors Komnenos establish semi-independent state in Trebizond before the year 1204. [90] According to Alexander Vasiliev, "Angeloi accelerate the collapse of the imperial dynasty.Fourth CrusadeCrusaders Entering Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix (1840).In 1198, Pope Innocent III to start talks on a new crusade through legatus and encyclical letters. The goal crusade was to conquer Egypt, which is the center of Muslim power in the Levant. Crusaders who arrived in Venice in the summer of 1202 the number was smaller than anticipated. They also do not have enough funds to hire a fleet of Venice. In exchange for payment, the Crusaders agreed to help seize the port of (Christian) Zara in Dalmatia (vassal city of Venice, but rebelled and protected by Hungary in 1186). Zara successfully taken in November 1202 after a brief siege. [94] Innocent, who had been told about the plan but the opposition is ignored, does not want to jeopardize the Crusade plan, so he gave pengampunyan conditional to the Crusaders, but the Venetians did not get it.Crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203. Alexios III fled from the capital. Alexios Angelos took the throne as Alexios IV along with a blind father, Isaac.Unfortunately, Alexios IV and Isaac II was unable to keep their promises and dropped by Alexios V. Then the Crusaders captured Constantinople on April 13, 1204. Constantinople was plundered for three days later. Many of the icons, relics, and other objects in Constantinople, transported to Western Europe. According Choniates, prostitution was founded on the throne of the patriarch. When Innocent III heard of the behavior of the Crusaders, he wanted to punish them, but the situation was out of control, especially after legatusnya, which on its own initiative, to free the Crusaders from their duty to conquer the Holy Land. When the government has been restored, the Crusaders and the Venetians set their approval: Baldwin of Flanders was chosen as the emperor and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was appointed as the patriarch. So stood the Latin Empire in Constantinople.Meanwhile, Byzantine refugees founded their own state, with the most important is the Empire of Nicaea, Empire of Trebizond, and Epirus Kedespotan.After Theobald III died, the leadership changed hands Crusaders to Boniface of Montferrat, a friend of Philip of Swabia. Both Boniface and Philip had been married with a family member of the Byzantine empire. Philip-in-law, Alexios Angelos (son of Emperor Isaac II Angelos, who has been dropped and blinded), pleading for assistance to Europe and has been associated with the Crusaders. Alexios offered reunification Byzantine church with Rome, the payment of 200,000 marks of silver, and other assistance. Innocent informed about plans to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and prohibit attacks against the city, but the papal letter arrived after the fleets had left Zara.The fall of the ByzantineEmpire in exileAfter the Crusaders looted Constantinople in 1204, the two countries stood Byzantium: the Empire of Nicaea and Epirus Kedespotan. Third country, Trebizond Empire, founded by Alexios I of Trebizond few weeks before the looting of Constantinople. Among these three states, Epirus and Nicaea were the most likely retake Constantinople. Empire of Nicaea continue to struggle to stay afloat, and in the middle of the 13th century had lost much of its territory in southern Anatolia. The weakening of the Sultanate of Rum in the attack of the Mongols in 1242-43 allowed the beylik and ghazis to establish their own principality in Anatolia, thus weakening Byzantine power in Asia Minor. However, the Mongol invasions also provide time for Nicaea to divert attention to the Latin Empire.Reconquest of ConstantinopleEastern Roman Empire in 1263.Empire of Nicaea retook Constantinople from the Latin in 1261. Furthermore, they also managed to defeat Epirus. Then the Byzantines successfully restored under the leadership of Michael VIII Palaiologos. However, due to the war-torn empire is now vulnerable to nearby enemies. To reinforce his army in battle against the Latin Empire, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor, and to collect high taxes from the farmers, resulting in hatred.Large-scale development projects launched in Constantinople to repair damage caused by the Fourth Crusade, but none of these businesses are profitable farmers in Asia Minor, suffering from an attack-ghazis ghazis.Michael chose to expand the empire rather than maintaining its colonies in Asia Minor. To prevent looting the other, he forced the church subject to Rome, which became a temporary solution. Furthermore, the Emperor Andronikos II and his grandson KaisarAndronikos III, seeks to revive the empire, but the mercenaries hired by Andronikos II often backfire.The rise and fall of the Ottoman ConstantinopleKonstantinopeltahun Siege of 1453.The situation worsened after Andronikos III died. During the six-year civil war raged in the empire, and earthquakes in Gallipoli in 1354 destroyed the fortifications, so that Ottoman (hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos) can strengthen its position in Europe. When the civil war has ended, the Ottomans had been defeated Serbia and subjugate them as a vassal. SetelahPertempuran Kosovo, most of the Balkans has been dominated by the Ottomans.Eastern Mediterranean before the fall of Constantinople.Emperor for help from the west, but the pope will only send aid if the Eastern Orthodox Church would be reunited with the Holy See. Unification Church has been considered, and is sometimes done through an imperial decree, but the population and Orthodox clergy hated the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite. Some western troops arrived and strengthen the defense of Constantinople, but most Western rulers, who are busy with their business, not doing anything when the Ottomans annexed one by one the rest of the Byzantine territory.On April 2, 1453, Sultan Mehmed II the army numbered 80,000 besieged Constantinople.Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans on May 29, 1453. Last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XIPalaiologos, visible sign of his greatness and release involve himself in combat after the walls of the city was taken.Post-collapse of the ByzantineMehmed II conquered the small states in Mistra, Greece, in 1460, and Trebizond in 1461.At the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had taken control of most of Asia Minor and the Balkans. Meanwhile, the Danube principalities refugees receive refugee-Orthodox and Byzantine nobles.The last emperor's nephew, Andrew Palaeologos, inherited the title of the Byzantine Emperor and used from year 1465 until his death in 1503. Furthermore, the emperor's role as the protector of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III, Grand Duke of Mokswa. He has been married brother Andrew, Sophia Paleologue. His grandson, Ivan IV, would become the first Russian tsar (czar, atauczar, meaning caesar, is a term first used the Slavs to the Byzantine Emperor). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the successor of Rome and Constantinople. The idea that Russia is the Roman Empire survived until the outbreak of the Third Russian Revolution of 1917.EconomyByzantine economy is one of the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for centuries. Europe was unable to match Byzantine economic strength until the late Middle Ages. Constantinople is a major hub in the trade network covering almost the whole of Eurasia and North Africa. The city is also one of the major cities in the path of silk. Some experts claim that, until the coming of the Arabs in the seventh century, the Eastern Roman economy is the strongest in the world. Arab conquest causes deterioration and stagnation.Reform of Constantine V (765) marks the start of economic recovery that lasted until the year 1204. From the tenth century until the end of the twelfth century, the Byzantine Empire projected the image of luxury, and wanderers amazed by the wealth of Constantinople.Everything changed during the Fourth Crusade, which brought economic disaster.Palaiologos trying to restore the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full power over the strength of domestic and foreign economies. Slowly, the Byzantines also lost its influence in the modalities of trade and price mechanisms, and also control over the flow of precious metals, and even, according to some experts, to the printing of the coins.One of the economic foundation of the empire was trade. Textiles are the most important export commodity. Countries with strict control of internal and international trade, as well as having a monopoly in issuing coins. The government set the interest rate, and set the parameters of the activity of trade unions and companies, which imposed a special interest. The emperor and its officials to intervene in a crisis to ensure the provision of capital and keep the price of cereals. The government collects the surplus through tax collection, and put in circulation through the redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials, or in the form of investing public facilities.GovernmentIn the Eastern Roman, emperors are the sole and absolute ruler. His reign is considered to have divine origin. The Senate does not have the political and legislative authority are real, but remains as a board of honor. At the end of the 8th century, the civil administration is centralized in the palace was formed as part of the consolidation of power in the capital (the rise of sakellarios position associated with this change). The most important reform in this period was the establishment of themes. On themes, civil and military administration set up by one person, namely strategos.Titular system and the rights of the empire resulted in the introduction of government looks like bureaucracy to modern observers. Officials arranged in a tight arrangement between the emperor, and their positions depend on the will of the emperor. In the Byzantine administrative work that is actually there, but the government would be mounted on certain people rather than a service. In the 8th century and 9th, the civil service is the quickest way aristocrat status, but since the 9th century, the civil aristocracy rivaled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies, 11th-century politics was dominated by the rivalry between the civilian and military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I launched an important administrative reforms that include the procurement of rank and position the palace.DiplomacyAfter the fall of the Roman, Byzantine main challenge is to build relationships with its neighbors. Byzantine diplomacy soon attracted the attention of its neighbors. Then the network of international and interstate relations. This network revolved around treaty making, and includes welcoming new ruler, and the assimilation of actions, values ​​and social institutions of the East. [118] While the classical writers to write an ethical and legal separation between peace and war, the East Roman diplomacy regarded as one form of war . For example, the threat of Bulgaria can be overcome by providing funds to the Kiev Rus. Orthodox Church also played a diplomatic function, and the spread of Orthodox Christianity is the main diplomatic objective of the empire.Scrinium Barbarorum at Constantinople in charge of the protocol and record keeping regarding anything related to "barbaric". While the task is implementing the protocol, they ensure foreign ambassadors treated well, and also plays a role in the translation of diplomatic missions of the barbarian nations. J.B. Bury believes that the department oversees all foreigners who visited Constantinople. Some people, like Michael Antonucci, believes that Scrinium Barbarorum act as a sort of spy service to the empire, but there is no strong evidence on this matter. On Strategy from the 6th century offer advice on foreign embassies: "[Ambassadors] are sent must be accepted with respect and generosity, because anyone honor the ambassador, but their presence should be supervised to ensure they do not obtain information by questioning people we.Byzantines took the opportunity and take advantage of some of the diplomatic approach.For example, embassies to the capital often live for years. One member of the royal family from other countries are often asked to stay in Constantinople. They are not only useful as a hostage, but also a pawn that can be utilized if the political conditions of the country where he came from changed. Another important practice in the East Roman diplomacy is to show a lot of luxury goods to visitors. According to Dimitri Obolensky, the sustainability of civilization in Eastern Europe is due to reasonable skill and Byzantine diplomacy, which remains one of the Byzantine contribution to the history of Europe.Science and lawGalleries of birds in Byzantine manuscripts.The writing style of the classical era never ceases to be empowered in Byzantium. Thus, the Eastern Roman science closely related to ancient philosophy danmetafisika. Although the Byzantines succeeded in applying science (as in the construction of Hagia Sophia), after the 6th century, Byzantine experts are not much to contribute to science. New theories are not a lot was conceived, and the idea of ​​classical authors is not much developed.Expertise is hampered in those years of darkness caused by bubonic plague and the Arab conquest, but in the Byzantine renaissance in the late first millennium, experts Byzantine reappear and become an expert in Arabic and Persian scientific development, especially in the fields of astronomy and mathematics.At the end of the century the empire, the Byzantine grammarians responsible in bringing grammar and writing and literary study of Ancient Greece to Italy Renaisansawal. During this period, astronomy and mathematics are taught in Trebizond.In the field of law, reform of Justinian I have given a clear influence on the development jurisprudens. Meanwhile, Emperor Leo III Ecloga influence the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world.LanguagePsalm Mudil dalambahasa Coptic.Initially, the imperial language is Latin. Language became the official language until the 7th century, when Heraclius replaced it with the Greek language. Scientific Latin language is no longer used by the educated population, although still a part of the ceremonial culture of the empire for several Latin waktu.Bahasa People remains a minority language of the empire, and among residents Trako-Roman, the language gave birth to the language (Proto-) Romania. Meanwhile, on the Adriatic coast, neo-Latin dialects developed, which will bring the language of Dalmatia. In the provinces that had dominated the Western Mediterranean under the reign of Justinian I, Latin (eventually evolved into the Italian language) continue to be used as a folk language and scientific language.The main language used in the Eastern Roman (even since before the fall of Western Roman) is Greek. Language has been spoken for centuries before Latin. In the early days of the Roman, Greek language is widely used in Christian churches, and also became the language of science and art. In addition, also a Greek intermediary trade.Many other languages ​​are also spoken in this multiethnic empire. Some languages ​​have official satatus limited in the provinces. In the early Middle Ages, Syriac and Aramaic language spoken by educated people in the provinces of the east end. Coptic, Armenian, and Georgia are also widely used in their respective places. Meanwhile, the language of Slavonia, Vlach, and Arabic became important because relations with foreign powers.Constantinople was the center of trade, so that every language known in medieval times sometimes spoken in the empire, even including the Chinese language. When the empire entered the final period of decline, the population becomes homogeneous Eastern Roman, and Greek became important for identity and their religion.CultureArt and literatureThumbnail Rabbula Gospel.Byzantine art mostly associated with religious expression. Byzantine forces spread through trade and conquest to Italy and Sicily; these forces will affect the Italian renaissance art. With a view to expand the Eastern Orthodox Church, Byzantine style spread to the cities of eastern Europe, especially Russia. The influence of Byzantine architecture, especially in the form of religious buildings, can be found in various areas, from Egypt and Arabia, to Russia and Romania.In literature, there are four elements of culture, namely the Greek, Christian, Roman and Oriental. Byzantine literature is often classified into five groups: historians and analysts, encyclopedic (Patriarch Photios, Michael Psellos, and Michael Choniates regarded as the largest encyclopedic Byzantine) and author of essays, as well as secular poet. Two other groups include a new literary genre: the ecclesiastical and theological literature, and popular literature. From two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive, only three hundred and thirty that includes secular poetry, history, science, and pseudoscience. Secular literature developed from the ninth to the twelfth century, while religious literature (sermon, the liturgical books, poems, devotions, etc.) develops first, with Romanus Melodus as the most prominent examples.ReligionMosaic of Christ in the Hagia Sophia.The survival of the emperor's imperial ensure an active role in church affairs. Byzantine state inherited habits in managing administrative and financial affairs of the pagan religion, and customs applicable in the church. People look at the Byzantine emperor as a representative or a herald of Christ. So the emperor responsible for the spread of Christianity among the pagans, and to the "outside" of religion, such as administration and finance. Even so, the role of the emperor in the church was never developed into a legal system remains.Christianity has never fully united in the Eastern Empire. Eastern Orthodox Church does not represent all Christians in kekaisaran.Nestorianisme, a view which is taught by Nestorius, separated from the church of the empire, and now the Assyrian Church of the East. Orthodox Church Orientalmelepaskan themselves from the imperial church after the declaration of the Council of Chalcedon. Arianism and other Christian sects also exist in the empire, although at the time of the fall of Rome in the 5th century, Arianism is more confined to the Germanic tribes in Western Europe. At the end of empire, the Eastern Orthodox Christians represent the majority of the rest of the empire. Meanwhile, the Jews were an important minority in the empire. Although several times suffered persecution, they are generally tolerated.With the fall of Rome and the internal strife in other kepatriarkan body, the church of Constantinople became the center of Christianity is the richest and most influential of the 6th century until the 11th century.HeritageKing David wore a Byzantine emperor. Miniature from the Paris Psalter.Eastern Roman Empire Western Europe has been secured from the new powers in the East. Byzantine continuously attacked by the Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and Ottomans. For example, the Byzantine-Arab Wars, is recognized by historians as a major factor behind the rise of Charlemagne the Great, and the stimulus to feudalism and economic independence.For centuries, Western historians use the term Byzantine and Byzantinisme as a byword for decadence, political guile, and a complex bureaucracy. In addition, there is a strong negative assessment of Byzantine civilization and its legacy in Southeastern Europe.Byzantinismesecara generally defined as a body of religious, political, and philosophical as opposed to the West. In the 20th century and to-21, Western historians trying to understand the East with more accurate and balanced. The result, a complex character of the Byzantine culture of more attention and be treated objectively than ever before.If the existence of the ancient Roman Empire (including the West) with the Eastern Roman / Byzantine combined, throughout the Roman Empire during the 1480 year has been tangible. Substitute Roman Empire, Roman Republic, there are over 482 years, so that the Roman state has existed for 1962 years.